AN INTRODUCATION OF MALI

       Mali is a landlocked country in western Africa located in the Saharan and Sahelian areas. Mali is located in the southwest of Algeria and is one of the world's hottest countries. Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara Desert, which produces an extremely hot, dust-laden Sudanian savanna zone[1]. The majority of Mali receives little rain, and droughts are common. The rainy season in the southernmost section runs from late April to early October. Flooding of the Niger River is widespread around this season, resulting in the Inner Niger Delta[2]. Mali's large northern desert region experiences a scorching desert environment. Mali is Africa's eighth-largest country, with little over 1,240,000 square kilometers (480,000 sq mi). Mali is largely flat, rising to sand-covered rolling northern plains. In the northeast, the Adrar des Ifoghas bulk is located. Mali is a country with a population of 19.1 million people. In 2017, 67 percent of the population was under the age of 25[3]. Bamako is the capital and largest city of Mali. Mali is divided into eight regions, with the Sahara Desert stretching deep into its northern border. The Sudanian savanna, through which the Niger and Senegal rivers run, is home to the bulk of the country's residents. Agriculture and mining are the economy's backbones. Mali is estimated to have more than 17,400 tonnes of uranium (measured + indicated + inferred) in 2012[2].

          SOURCE: https://www.bbc.co.uk/

        Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara Desert.

        SOURCE: Timm Guethuer-own work(2001)

PRECOLONIAL PERIOD

The name Mali is derived from the Mali Empire's name. The name derives from the phrase "the king's residence." It also has a strong connotation. In Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali (1965), Guinean writer Djibril Niane believes that Mali could have been the name given to one of the monarchs' capitals. Mali was the capital of the Mali Empire, according to Moroccan adventurer Ibn Battuta in the 14th century. One Mandinka mythology claims that when the legendary first monarch Sundiata Keita died in the Sankarani River, he transformed into a hippopotamus, and thus communities in the Sankarani River area, known as "ancient Mali," have the name Mali. Northern Mali has been populated since prehistoric times, when the Sahara was a rich meadow, according to rock drawings and carvings. Farming began circa 5000 BC, while iron began to be utilized around 500 BC. In 300 A.D., large communities began to emerge, notably Djenne. During the reign of Mansa Musa, from c.1312 to c.1337, Mali was a part of three famous West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves. There were no clear geographical boundaries or ethnic identities in these Sahelian kingdoms. The Ghana Empire was the first of these empires, and it was ruled by the Soninke, a Mande-speaking people. Later, on the upper Niger River, the Mali Empire rose, reaching its pinnacle of dominance in the 14th century. The ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of trade and Islamic study throughout the Mali Empire. Internal strife eventually led to the empire's demise, and the Songhai Empire eventually took its place. The Songhai people are from present-day Nigeria's northwestern region. The Songhai had long been a powerful power in West Africa, but they had been ruled by the Mali Empire. However, Mali’s decline in the 15th century enabled the Songhai kingdom in the east to assert its independence[4].

Administrative buildings in Bamako.

SOURCE: Image: Radio Raheem

COLONIAL RULE BY THE FRENCH AND INDEPENDENCE

 During the late nineteenth century, France seized control of Mali. The majority of the region was under firm French administration as part of French Sudan by 1905. French Sudan (later renamed the Sudanese Republic) established an autonomous republic inside the French Community on November 24, 1958. Mali and Senegal merged in January 1959 to become the Mali Federation.  When a territorial legislature was constituted in 1946, political parties were formed for the first time. Under the charismatic Marxist leader Modibo Keita, the Sudanese Union–African Democratic Party (Union Soudanaise–Rassemblement Démocratique Africain; US–RDA) finally became the dominant party[4]. The Sudanese Republic was established in October 1958, and on November 24, 1958, it became an autonomous state inside the French Community. Senegal and the Sudanese Republic merged in January 1959 to form the Mali Federation, which was led by Keita. Keita, the new country's first president, quickly replaced French public officials with Africans, separated the country from France, forged close diplomatic and economic links with countries in the communist bloc, and formed a state-run economy[5]. Mali adopted its nonconvertible currency in 1962, while Keita entered into monetary talks with the French in 1967 to help the country's ailing economy. While claiming to be nonaligned, Keita backed the communist bloc in foreign affairs regularly. His radical socialist political and economic policies, as well as a cultural revolution that began in 1967, sparked considerable public unrest, allowing a group of army commanders to seize control. They staged a coup on November 19, 1968, to depose Keita and his government. The officers formed a 14-member Military Committee of National Liberation, commanded by Lieut. Moussa Traoré, that ruled Mali from 1969 to 1979, when a civilian administration was elected. Disagreements led to the expulsion of two commanders in 1971, and four others were accused of plotting a coup and jailed in 1978; two of them eventually died in prison[5].

THE DEMOCRATIC OUTLOOK AFTER INDEPENDENCE

   President Konaré's efforts to rebuild Mali were hampered by a weak economy, drought, desertification, inefficient parastatals, a bloated civil service, decreasing foreign aid. The government also faced a continuing crisis caused by Tuareg rebels, who began returning to their homes in the northern part of the country from Libya and Algeria. Dissatisfaction with the government's handling of the conflict in the north was cited as the impetus for an army mutiny that quickly evolved into a military coup[6]. The 2018 presidential election in Mali was scheduled to take place in July. Security issues prevented voting from taking place in more than 600 polling stations. The incumbent, Keïta, and his primary 2013 challenger, Cissé, received the most votes in the poll. Since no one candidate won more than 50 percent, a runoff election was scheduled for August[7]. Mali's transitional government was dissolved in August 2020 after a military junta took control. The interim president and vice president were inaugurated on September 25, 2020. A constitutional referendum would be held in October followed by-elections in February 2022. In May 2021 the public dissatisfaction led N'Daw to call for a cabinet shuffle so that Moctar Ouane could form a more inclusive cabinet. Later that day, he appointed former minister and prominent M5 leader Choguel Maïga the new interim prime minister. Tensions have been high between the civilian transitional government and the military since the handover of power in September. On 24 May, tensions came to a head after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup - Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone - were replaced by President N'daw's administration. Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders - President Ndaw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane, and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré - were being detained in a military base[8].

CHINA-MALI BILATERAL RELATIONS

China and Mali’s relationship dates back to the post-colonial period, with diplomatic relations established on October 25, 1960. Efforts to rejuvenate relations through economic links were made in the 1990s, especially after the visit to Bamako by China’s Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing in January 2005. Relations between China and Mali have developed into a broad and diverse spectrum of areas, spanning socio-cultural relations, political and economic links, and an expanding security relationship since 2012. In development assistance and Socio-cultural relations, three main development projects stand out among China’s many projects in Mali. These are the Centre de Formation Professionelle in Senou, the Centre Universitaire de Kabala, and the Centre Pilote Agricole in Baguineda. What’s more, people-to-people exchange initiatives and scholarship programs are a trademark of Chinese foreign policy in Africa and an important part of China-Mali bilateral relations. In political relations, founded on deep historical ties, China has maintained strong political relations with Mali. Mali’s long history of supporting Beijing is part of ritual encounters between high level leaders. As China’s ambassador in Bamako put it, Mali, “has, like a good brother, unswervingly supported China on its core interests.” Economic relations between China and Mali are not insignificant but are not at the scale of China’s relations with other resource-rich African states. Regarding security and military relations China delivered 5 million Euros worth of logistics equipment to the Malian Army between 2012 and 2013. In addition to military aid, China’s UN peacekeeping is another prominent part of its security engagement in Mali[9].

REFERENCES

[1]“Wayback Machine.”

Available:https://web.archive.org/web/20190819064921/http://www.instat-mali.org/contenu/rgph/rastr09_rgph.pdf.

[2]“About Mali - Common Pastures.”

Available: https://commonpastures.org/about-mali/.

[3]“Mali Population 2021 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs).” Available:https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/mali-population.

[4] De Jorio R. Narratives of the Nation and Democracy in Mali. A View from Modibo Keita’s Memorial[M]. Éditions de l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales, 2003.

[5]“Modibo Keita | president of Mali | Britannica.”

Available: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Modibo-Keita.

[6]“AU, ECOWAS, and French president condemn Mali coup | Africanews.”

Available:https://www.africanews.com/2021/05/26/au-ecowas-and-french-president-condemn-mali-coup//.

[7]“Mali president arrested: Mutiny leaders for Mali coup 2020 don close borders, impose curfew afta resignation of Malian President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta - BBC News Pidgin.”

Available: https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/tori-53831043.

[8]“Mali coup chief names new cabinet with army officers in key posts | Mali News | Al Jazeera.”

Available:https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/11/malis-military-return-to-key-posts-as-new-govt-is-sworn-in.

[9] Benabdallah L, Large D. Development, Security, and China’s Evolving Role in Mali[J]. 2020.

（Priscilla Owusu-Ansah: Assistant Researcher of CWAS，School of Public Affairs and Administration of UESTC）

Please refer to the Chinese Version published on Huanqiu.com, one of the top three rating news media in China. Huanqiu.com is a national rating on line media platform, approved by the publisher of People's Daily and the Central Internet Information Office of China. This column is to provide a platform for researchers and practitioners on West African issues.

Link: https://opinion.huanqiu.com/article/44hKndd8mAD